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From the EEOC, Family Leave Act, and fight for equal pay, the 1990s was a decade of progress for working women. 

The women who came to age in the 1990s were the first generation of American women who had not been told their only place was in the home. They saw themselves reflected on television shows such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Xena Princess Warrior, and Sex and the City. This generation had been entitled to the educational and career opportunities their mothers had fought for, and they took them for granted. Even though young women agreed that the work of the women’s movement had helped their lives, they were hesitant to call themselves feminists. Gail Collins said it best, “Work was not something you fought for the right to do; it was something you just did.”

In 1991, two-thirds of married women with children worked, and the increased costs of homes and college education demanded two incomes. In fact, college tuition was rising three times faster than household incomes. On average, married women in the 90s provided 41% of a family’s income, and in almost a quarter of households, the woman earned more than the husband. 

The Work/Family Divide. In 1989, consultant, Felice Schwartz, wrote an article for the Harvard Business Review highlighting ways that corporations could retain employees who were also mothers. Schwartz suggested flexible hours, job sharing, and childcare services. She also suggested that businesses should divide female employees into two groups – one group as “career and family” and the other as “career-primary.” Her idea was that the companies would know which “track” women were on and could be more efficient and promoted accurately. The New York Times dubbed it the “Mommy Track,” which caused great controversy. The idea that motherhood could create a slower track at work infuriated women, and many asked why it assumed that the mother, not the father, must choose a track. A coalition of 44 national women’s groups denounced the concept. However, it was a debate that would continue and still does. For all that the women’s movement had accomplished, it never solved the work/family divide.

Job Protected Unpaid Leave. Families benefited from the enactment of the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993. This law requires covered employers to provide employees with job-protected, unpaid leave for qualified medical and family reasons. Although this law does not cover everyone, it allows new mothers and fathers in large companies to take time off to be with their babies and have their job protected. This is an important step in solving the problem of the Mommy Track. 

➡️➡️Read More:  1970s: A Decade of Change

Equal Opportunity Protection. Sexual harassment has been around since the beginning of time. The EEOC was formed in 1965, and one of its tasks was to handle sexual harassment complaints. Unfortunately, most were dismissed without being investigated, and there was little public awareness of the problem. However, in 1991, that changed when Anita Hill accused Clarence Thomas, nominee to the Supreme Court, of sexual harassment. Ironically, Hill had worked for Thomas in two federal agencies, including the EEOC. The public confirmation hearing created a stir, and the public was very divided. However, Hill’s testimony allowed space for more women to tell their stories and created a greater awareness of where women were missing, such as in the halls of Congress.

The Year of the Woman. 1992 was called the Year of the Woman, the number of women in the House increased from 28 to 47, and 6 women were added to the Senate. Betty Friedan died in 2006 at age 85, and she should have been proud of the work that she and her fellow activists had created in society. At the beginning of the new century, women made up almost half the medical and law school students. Forty percent of the new dental school graduates were women. The number of women in science had risen to 20 percent, up from 3% in the 1960s. Even in the exclusive world of symphonies, women made up a third of the chairs in the top orchestras. More than 56% of college students were female, and their graduation rates were better than men’s. 

Yet, there was still a lot of work to be done. In 2005, only 17% of partners in major law firms were women. While women represented nearly half of lower-management jobs, only a handful were CEOs in Fortune 500 companies. Of workers making between $100,000 and $200,000 a year, three-quarters were male. 

The Fight for Pay Equity. Pay equity has always been an issue, and it continues to be. Simply put, pay equity is compensating employees the same for the same or similar work regardless of gender, race, age, or other discriminatory reason. At the start of the twenty-first century, women were paid only 80 cents for every dollar men were paid. Some of the differences in the wage gap are the prevalence of women in lower-paying jobs, which have traditionally been female, such as teaching. Other factors include age, with younger women closing the wage gap more quickly. Unfortunately, discrimination and societal norms still play a part in the disparity. 

In 2007, the Supreme Court was asked to review the case between Lilly Ledbetter and Goodyear Tire regarding pay discrimination. Lilly Ledbetter had worked at Goodyear Tire for 19 years. As a woman in a traditionally male business, she had endured discrimination and tough days at work but understood that was part of the job and overall felt like things were fair if you worked hard. When she was about to retire as a supervisor, she received an anonymous note informing her that she was making much less money than her male counterparts. Realizing the impact this would have on her retirement, Ledbetter filed a claim with the EEOC. Goodyear offered her $10,000 to settle the claim, and after additional negotiation that went nowhere, Ledbetter went to court. The jury awarded her more than $3 million in damages which were reduced to the $360,000 federal law limit. Goodyear appealed, arguing that federal law required her to file the complaint within the statute of limitations or 180 days from the first time the discrimination occurred.

➡️➡️Read More: 12_Climbing the Ladder and Having it ALL

The case eventually ended up in the Supreme Court, which sided with Goodyear in a 5 to 4 decision that the 180-day deadline applied to the date of her first discrimination. Justice Ruth Bader Ginsberg was so angry about the decision that she read her dissent from the bench, “In our view, the Court does not comprehend, or is indifferent to, the insidious way in which women can be victims of pay discrimination.” As a result, Ledbetter lost her entire financial award and had to pay some of Goodyear’s court costs.

Her case inspired Congress to act, and in 2009, The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act was the first bill that President Barack Obama signed into law. It amended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, which states that the 180-day statute of limitations resets with each new discriminatory paycheck issued. Ledbetter continues to be an activist, fighting for equal rights and equal pay. 

The fight for equal pay continues today. On average, women in the U.S. make 17% less than men and even more for women of color. The pay gap persists regardless of education level. It is more important than one paycheck, and this difference creates a loss of close to a million dollars over the working lifetime of a woman. Women are the breadwinners in over half the families in the U.S., and the difference in pay translates to real needs for families. In South Carolina, the wage gap is larger than the national average. Here, women earn 73.4 cents on every dollar that men earn. 

Women in the Workforce: We Can Do It!

Whether married or single, with children or not, working part-time, full-time, or even two jobs, as a stay-at-home mom or a community volunteer, American women can do it! Throughout history, American women always have. And I am so proud we do! Over the next few months, I will explore how topics about women in the workforce from the early 1900s until the present. Also, I want to note the changing trends of women in the workforce that this series contemplates will focus on white, middle-class women. Women of color have had very different experiences, and their work lives have been defined by racism, sexism, and financial necessity. I have pointed this out when possible, but please keep in mind that this series is not a complete picture of all women. 

This is Part 13 of a 14-part series, Women in the Workforce: We Can Do It!, which explores topics related to the history, challenges, and accomplishments of working women in America. Topics to date include: 01_Women in the Workforce: We Can Do It!, 02_The War Opens the Doors for Working Women, 03_Rise of Jobs, Rise of Inequality,  04_Working Women and The Great Depression, 05 The Rise of Female Empowerment, 06_Stay Home or Be Paid Less  07_A Woman’s Place, 08_The Myth of the Ideal Woman, 09_Is This All?,10_Women’s Lib Movement and the Fight for Equal Rights, 11_1970s:ADecadeofChange, and 12_Climbing the Ladder and Having it ALL

Propel HR President Lee Yarborough

“My father, Braxton Cutchin, and I founded the company in 1996. After being in the PEO and HR world for 25 years, I have experienced firsthand the value we can provide to both the clients and the employees. It is truly a win for all parties. I’m proud to have helped establish Propel HR as an industry forerunner in the Southeast. There is nothing I love more than receiving phone calls from clients who seek my advice as a trusted advisor. This is a business where I feel that I can help others, and that is important to my own value.”

— Lee Yarborough, President, Propel HR

Active in many professional and community organizations, Lee recently served as Chair of the Board of Directors of the National Association of Professional Employer Organizations (NAPEO). As NAPEO Chair, Lee focused on diversity and initiatives to deepen member relations. Under her leadership, she formed Women in NAPEO (WIN), a networking group designed to engage, empower, and encourage women working in the PEO industry. On the local level, Lee also served as the Chair of NAPEO’s Carolinas Leadership Council for more than a decade. In 2015, she was named a Fellow of the eleventh class of the Liberty Fellowship Program and a member of the Aspen Global Leadership Network.

An advocate for public education, Lee has served on the executive board as Chair of Public Education Partners and is the founder and director of Read Up Greenville, a young adult and middle grades book festival in downtown Greenville, SC.

When she breaks from board meetings, client visits, and networking, most likely, you will find Lee reading, camping, or spending time with her family. She also enjoys volunteering at her church and staying involved with her children’s schools.

About Propel HR. Propel HR is an IRS-certified PEO that has been a leading provider of human resources and payroll solutions for more than 25 years. Propel partners with small to midsized businesses to manage payroll, employee benefits, compliance and risks, and other HR functions in a way that maximizes efficiency and reduces costs. Visit our new website, www.propelhr.com.

During the 1980s, women focused on climbing the career ladder and the idea of having it all – career, husband, and children.

For women, the ‘70s were about working a job. During the 1980s, the focus was making a career. The ‘80s was the decade when women thought they could have it all – career, husband, and children. Most Americans were comfortable having female doctors, lawyers, mayors, and bosses, and the number of women attending college surpassed men. The decade also narrowed the wage inequality gap. In 1979, women made, on average, 58 cents for every dollar a man made. By 1994, the average woman made 72 cents for every dollar a man made. 

Women were still employed in traditionally low-salaried jobs such as clerical, service, or factories, but they were also moving into other segments. Some professions, such as construction, remained male-dominated. Ironically, the professions that had been open to women, such as teaching and nursing, suffered a decline in prestige during the 1980s. 

For women climbing the corporate ladder at that time, their fashion choices emulated the men. Women wore power suits with shoulder pads. The suits and shoulder pads sent a message of strength and solidarity and, truthfully, made women’s waists appear smaller. In addition, exercise became in vogue, with Jane Fonda leading American women through aerobics classes. This was just one more responsibility that women added to their schedule to aim for perfection. 

▶️▶️Read More: 10_Women’s Lib Movement and the Fight for Equal Rights

Television in the 1980s centered around primetime dramas with women working alongside men in hospitals, law firms, and police stations. Cagney and Lacey debuted in 1982 as the first television drama with two female leads. The biggest hit of the 80s was The Cosby Show, and Clair Huxtable embodied the ideal 80s woman. She had it all. She was an attorney, a mother of five, a loving wife, maintained a warm and beautiful home, and had a wonderful sense of humor. And what woman of the 80s was not inspired to have it all by the words from the Enjoli Perfume ad, “I’m a Woman: I can bring home the bacon, fry it up in a pan, and never let you forget you’re a man…” 

Giving 100% at Home and Work. Women of the 80s wanted all that their mothers had, plus more. They were encouraged to give 100% of themselves at work and 100% at home. Yet, this was not sustainable. Men began doing more housework and childcare during the 80s, but studies show that it was not significant.

Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild studied the division of household chores in her 1989 book, The Second Shift. She concluded that while some men had stepped up their game, women performed approximately 15 more hours of household work per week or one additional month of work per year. When the activists of the 60s fought to liberate women, they envisioned a world with flexible workplaces where both partners could enjoy professional success, homes where both partners shared in the responsibilities, and a government or corporations that would provide childcare. However, they did not envision a world where everything would stay the same and women would have to do more to succeed. 

The Chances of Having It All. For the generation of young women growing up in the 80s, “having it all” included getting married. In 1986, a Yale sociologist told a newspaper that there was a marriage shortage. He said female college graduates who remained unmarried until 30 had only a 20% chance of finding a husband. At 35 years, a 5% chance, and at 50, only a 1% chance. Newsweek made it a cover story and even joked that older women have a greater chance of being killed by a terrorist than getting married. Women were told they were too picky and to be concerned about their biological clocks. Later, it was found that the marriage study was flawed. In fact, just 5% of women ages 45 – 54 at that time had never married, the smallest proportion ever. 

▶️ ▶️ Read More:  11_1970s: A Decade of Change

The fertility rate leveled off in the 1980s to an average of 1.8 children per woman, down from 3.8 in 1957. The rate among women ages 18 to 24 declined, and the rate for women over 30 jumped. Especially in the urban areas, women were waiting until much later to start a family. In 1982, Time Magazine’s cover celebrated motherhood after 30. However, that very same week, The New England Journal of Medicine reported that women’s chances of becoming pregnant after 30 dropped precipitously. It seemed women couldn’t win. 

The Fight Continues. Women in the 1980s tried to have it all, and they continued to fight for things they thought they had already won. Women fought to be partners or high-level executives. Women had shown they could competently perform the work but now had to fight individual battles in male-dominated worlds.

Many women heard that they were not “feminine enough” or “too smart” as they were climbing the career ladders. They were also many men who were trying to push them down. It was not as easy as women had hoped it would be. 

Women in the Workforce: We Can Do It!

Whether married or single, with children or not, working part-time, full-time, or even two jobs, as a stay-at-home mom or a community volunteer, American women can do it! Throughout history, American women always have. And I am so proud we do! Over the next few months, I will explore how topics about women in the workforce from the early 1900s until the present. Also, I want to note the changing trends of women in the workforce that this series contemplates will focus on white, middle-class women. Women of color have had very different experiences, and their work lives have been defined by racism, sexism, and financial necessity. I have pointed this out when possible, but please keep in mind that this series is not a complete picture of all women. 

This is Part 12 of a 14-part series, Women in the Workforce: We Can Do It!, which explores topics related to the history, challenges, and accomplishments of working women in America. Topics to date include: 01_Women in the Workforce: We Can Do It!, 02_The War Opens the Doors for Working Women, 03_Rise of Jobs, Rise of Inequality,  04_Working Women and The Great Depression, 05 The Rise of Female Empowerment, 06_Stay Home or Be Paid Less  07_A Woman’s Place, 08_The Myth of the Ideal Woman. 09_Is This All?,10_Women’s Lib Movement and the Fight for Equal Rights, and 11_1970s:ADecadeofChange

Propel HR President Lee Yarborough

“My father, Braxton Cutchin, and I founded the company in 1996. After being in the PEO and HR world for 25 years, I have experienced firsthand the value we can provide to both the clients and the employees. It is truly a win for all parties. I’m proud to have helped establish Propel HR as an industry forerunner in the Southeast. There is nothing I love more than receiving phone calls from clients who seek my advice as a trusted advisor. This is a business where I feel that I can help others, and that is important to my own value.”

— Lee Yarborough, President, Propel HR

Active in many professional and community organizations, Lee recently served as Chair of the Board of Directors of the National Association of Professional Employer Organizations (NAPEO). As NAPEO Chair, Lee focused on diversity and initiatives to deepen member relations. Under her leadership, she formed Women in NAPEO (WIN), a networking group designed to engage, empower, and encourage women working in the PEO industry. On the local level, Lee also served as the Chair of NAPEO’s Carolinas Leadership Council for more than a decade. In 2015, she was named a Fellow of the eleventh class of the Liberty Fellowship Program and a member of the Aspen Global Leadership Network.

An advocate for public education, Lee has served on the executive board as Chair of Public Education Partners and is the founder and director of Read Up Greenville, a young adult and middle grades book festival in downtown Greenville, SC.

When she breaks from board meetings, client visits, and networking, most likely, you will find Lee reading, camping, or spending time with her family. She also enjoys volunteering at her church and staying involved with her children’s schools.

About Propel HR. Propel HR is an IRS-certified PEO that has been a leading provider of human resources and payroll solutions for more than 25 years. Propel partners with small to midsized businesses to manage payroll, employee benefits, compliance and risks, and other HR functions in a way that maximizes efficiency and reduces costs. Visit our new website, www.propelhr.com.

The economic downturn of the 1970s pushed more women into the workforce, which impacted labor laws, education, and the family structure.

The mid-70s marked an end to the women’s liberation movement. Fear and resentment of the liberated woman became more prevalent. This was understandable as the traditional homemaker had always been celebrated in American society, and now the world seemed to be saying that being a housewife was not enough. Women became divided, and many questioned whether women’s liberation was a good thing. 

And the economy began to decline. Unemployment rose, and inflation hit 13.3%. Gas shortages persisted, and many of you remember the long lines at the gas stations. Young people who had grown up with high expectations of economic security quickly realized that they might not be able to match the same standards of living as their parents. 

➡️➡️ Read More: 09_Is This All?

The economic downturn pushed more wives to work. By the end of the 1970s, for the first time ever, more than half of women had jobs outside of the home. They were paid approximately 60% less than men, but they were able to quickly find employment. Jobs in health care and service industries were growing, while factory and unionized jobs were moving overseas. According to Gail Collins, the median income of young families under 30 fell 27% between 1973 and 1986. While polls showed that, in general, people believed in equality for women, there was also agreement that it was more important for women to focus on helping their husband’s career succeed instead of pursuing their own. 

More Career Opportunities. Although a backlash formed against the women’s liberation movement, there were significant changes. Women entering college in the 70s considered their career path, not what man they wanted. The median age of marriage rose dramatically, particularly for those who had a college degree. And most importantly, for women in the workplace, when they walked into meetings or offices, they would see other women like themselves. 

Popular culture showed these changes as well. Two popular television shows in the 70s highlighted working women and the inequalities they experienced. Alice featured a single mother supporting herself and her son by working in a diner with a chauvinistic boss. The Mary Tyler Moore Show was one of the most loved shows of all time and featured a single woman in her 30s working for a TV station. Both shows highlighted different aspects of the trials of women at work, including episodes on pay inequality. Even fashion in the workplace had been liberated. Pantyhose and slips replaced wires, garters, and girdles. Pants and pantsuits were in fashion, and flats were an option instead of high heels. Makeup could be minimal, nails short, and hair could be natural. The language was beginning to change as well in the 70s. In business, women began using the prefix, Ms., instead of prefixes, which are tied to marital status. However, it is worth noting that The New York Times did not adopt the use of Ms. until 1986.

Doors for women had finally opened for good. By the end of the 1970s, a quarter of medical school students were female and a third of law school students (up from 10% in 1970). During the decade, women also were accepted to skilled trade unions where the pay was often three times what they would receive in a nonunion job. 

Greater Legal Recognition. Women gained greater legal recognition in this decade. In 1977, the judicial system first recognized sexual harassment in the workplace, although it was not defined by the EEOC until 1980. The Pregnancy Discrimination Act was enacted in 1978, making it illegal to discriminate against pregnant women in employment. And the flight attendants who had suffered great discrimination and objectification from the airlines finally won a victory in 1973 when a court ruled against appearance rules and other restrictions which were not specifically tied to safety. 

➡️➡️ Read More: 08_The Myth of the Ideal Woman

Changes in the Family Structure. Families continued to change. In 1960, 62% of American homes had a father who was the breadwinner, a stay-at-home mom, and one or more children. By the mid-1980s, only 10% of households resembled that. People were staying single longer and deferring marriage for work. The birthrate declined overall, and more mothers worked than in the past due to economic necessity. Housing costs tripled in the 1970s and 1980s and were out of reach for most families without two incomes. 

Divorce rates continued to skyrocket, and by 1980, it was three times as high as rates in 1962. Public opinion of divorce changed, and there was no longer a sense of shame. States also liberalized divorce laws, and all but three states had “no-fault” divorces by 1980. Although the new laws made divorce easier, they hurt many women and displaced many homemakers. The new laws abandoned most alimony requirements and decreased child support. On the face, this seemed fair. However, it primarily hurt women who had been home with children and not had the opportunities to grow wealth. Even Betty Friedan regretted this, stating, “At that time, we were so concerned with the principle – that equality of right and opportunity had to mean equality of responsibility…that we did not realize the trap that we were falling into.” 

Families were changing, but this had happened in other centuries. The difference was that now families were more isolated and autonomous than in the past. When stay-at-home moms had to go to work, the extended family and community network were not there to take her place. Most women could not afford childcare and tried to patch together solutions to work. Women who could afford childcare sent little ones to preschools or hired help. 

Today, the United States is an outlier among developed countries by offering little to no support for childcare. However, in the early 1970s, this almost changed. Around the same time the ERA passed, the Comprehensive Child Development Act of 1971 was introduced as a bi-partisan solution. It provided federal funds for childcare, after-school care, dental, medical, and counseling. Anyone was eligible, and there was a sliding pay scale to obtain the services based on income. There was little controversy, and it was supported by groups ranging from the PTA, the Baptist Church, Catholic Ministries, and the League of Women Voters. It was a rare moment when both parties worked together for a basic principle they all believed in. It passed the Senate quickly and won by a narrow margin in the House.

➡️➡️ Read More: 07_A Woman’s Place

However, by the time it got to Nixon’s desk for a signature, he vetoed it and denounced it as radical and socialist. Interestingly, legislators had been working with Nixon’s administration the entire time, and it was known that Nixon had written both a signing and a veto message. Some believe that he vetoed it right before his trip to China to show the right-wing of his party that he would not lean into communist ways. After Ford became President, the bill was resurrected as the Child and Family Services Bill but was eventually withdrawn as the economy worsened.

Although there have been programs established to help low-income families, there has never again been presented a national solution for childcare. With an economy that depends on women to work, this has been a critical problem that has not been addressed in America. 

Women in the Workforce: We Can Do It!

Whether married or single, with children or not, working part-time, full-time, or even two jobs, as a stay-at-home mom or a community volunteer, American women can do it! Throughout history, American women always have. And I am so proud we do! Over the next few months, I will explore how topics about women in the workforce from the early 1900s until the present. Also, I want to note the changing trends of women in the workforce that this series contemplates will focus on white, middle-class women. Women of color have had very different experiences, and their work lives have been defined by racism, sexism, and financial necessity. I have pointed this out when possible, but please keep in mind that this series is not a complete picture of all women. 

This is Part 11  of a 14-part series, Women in the Workforce: We Can Do It!, which explores topics related to the history, challenges, and accomplishments of working women in America. Topics to date include: 01_Women in the Workforce: We Can Do It!, 02_The War Opens the Doors for Working Women, 03_Rise of Jobs, Rise of Inequality,  04_Working Women and The Great Depression, 05 The Rise of Female Empowerment, 06_Stay Home or Be Paid Less  07_A Woman’s Place, 08_The Myth of the Ideal Woman, 09_Is This All? and 10_Women’s Lib Movement and the Fight for Equal Rights

Propel HR President Lee Yarborough

“My father, Braxton Cutchin, and I founded the company in 1996. After being in the PEO and HR world for 25 years, I have experienced firsthand the value we can provide to both the clients and the employees. It is truly a win for all parties. I’m proud to have helped establish Propel HR as an industry forerunner in the Southeast. There is nothing I love more than receiving phone calls from clients who seek my advice as a trusted advisor. This is a business where I feel that I can help others, and that is important to my own value.”  

— Lee Yarborough, President, Propel HR

Active in many professional and community organizations, Lee recently served as Chair of the Board of Directors of the National Association of Professional Employer Organizations (NAPEO). As NAPEO Chair, Lee focused on diversity and initiatives to deepen member relations. Under her leadership, she formed Women in NAPEO (WIN), a networking group designed to engage, empower, and encourage women working in the PEO industry. On the local level, Lee also served as the Chair of NAPEO’s Carolinas Leadership Council for more than a decade. In 2015, she was named a Fellow of the eleventh class of the Liberty Fellowship Program and a member of the Aspen Global Leadership Network.

An advocate for public education, Lee has served on the executive board as Chair of Public Education Partners and is the founder and director of Read Up Greenville, a young adult and middle grades book festival in downtown Greenville, SC.

When she breaks from board meetings, client visits, and networking, most likely, you will find Lee reading, camping, or spending time with her family. She also enjoys volunteering at her church and staying involved with her children’s schools.

About Propel HR. Propel HR is an IRS-certified PEO that has been a leading provider of human resources and payroll solutions for more than 25 years. Propel partners with small to midsized businesses to manage payroll, employee benefits, compliance and risks, and other HR functions in a way that maximizes efficiency and reduces costs. Visit our new website, www.propelhr.com.